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Gunshot Wounds: The “Hole” Story

Shots fired from close range often leave tell-tale marks called stippling, or tattooing. Evidence of contact with hot gunpowder can be seen just above and to the sides of the “V” opening of the shirt (the soot-blackened area) in the photograph below.

The person who wore this shirt was the victim of a shooting at close range—less than a foot away—with a 9mm pistol. Notice there’s no hole in the back of the shirt. No hole, no exit wound. The bullet remained lodged inside the body, even from a shot at this short distance.

The section below contains a photograph of an actual gunshot wound (post autopsy).

*WARNING. REAL GUNSHOT WOUND BELOW – GRAPHIC *

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In the picture below, the hot bullet entered the flesh leaving a gray-black ring around the wound. The tiny black dots are the stippling, or tattooing.

Close contact gunshot wound to the chest.

The impact of the bullet and gases striking the tissue also left a distinct bruising (ecchymosis) around the wound. Notice the stitching of the “Y” incision. The incision is at the centerline of the chest. I took this photo during the autopsy of the murder victim.

The wound is round and neat and it’s approximately the diameter of an ink pen. It’s not like the ones we see on television where half the guy’s body is blown into oblivion, or beyond, by a couple of bullets from a hero’s gun.

Stippling

Stippling is due to burned and unburned powder grains exiting from the firearm causing pinpoint blackened abrasions on the skin.

For Every Action There’s an Equal and Opposite Reaction

Bullets don’t always stop people. I’ve seen shooting victims get up and run after they’ve been shot several times. And for goodness sake, people DO NOT fly twenty feet backward after they’ve been struck by a bullet. Instead, they fall down and bleed. They may even moan a lot, or curse. That’s if they don’t get back up and start shooting again. Simply because a suspect has been shot once or twice does not mean his ability, or desire, to kill someone is over, and that, writers, is why police officers are taught to shoot until the threat is over.

The bank robber I shot and killed during a shootout fell after each of the five rounds hit him. But he also stood and began firing again after each of my bullets struck—one to the head and four to the center of his chest area. After the fifth round he stood and charged officers. Four of the five rounds caused fatal wounds. Yet, he still stood and ran toward officers. I and a sheriff’s captain tackled and cuffed him. In another instance, a man engaged in a gun battle with several officers. He was shot 33 times and still continued walking toward officers.

Always keep Sir Isaac Newton and his Third Law of Motion in mind when writing shooting scenes. The size of the force on the first object must equal the size of the force on the second object—force always comes in pairs.

Entrance Wounds

Entrance wounds caused when rounds are fired from a distance (not close contact wounds) typically exhibit a hole that’s near the size and round shape of the projectile/bullet. These wounds typically lack stippling (see “stippling” below).

Sometimes entrance wound shapes are irregular because bullets may tumble during flight, instead of spinning.

 

Irregular entrance wound

Gunshot wounds caused when the weapon is fired from an intermediate range may present a wide area of stippling and are without a muzzle imprint and/or laceration. The area of stippling present depends upon the proximity of the muzzle and the victim.

Several factors that affect how much or how little gunshot residue (GSR) appears on a victim’s skin and clothing. For example:

  • distance between the muzzle and victim when the round is fired
  • angle of the gun barrel in relation to the victim
  • type of clothing worn by the victim
  • components of the gunpowder
  • and more

Exit Wounds

Sometimes exit wounds are nearly as small or equal to the size of the entrance wound. The amount of damage and path of travel through the body depends on the type ammunition used and what the bullet struck as it makes it way through the body. However, they typically do not display signs and evidence associated with entrance wounds—imprint of the muzzle, stippling, or blackening of the skin edges.

Many bullets, such as those used in hollow point ammunition, are designed to hit a target and remain within that target/body without exiting. When a hollow point round hits a target, the nose of the bullet expands and flattens, creating a larger surface area than the bullet’s original size. This helps slow and even stop the forward motion of the bullet while inside the target. The purpose is to prevent the round from continuing through the target and hitting something else. Still, exit wounds do occur, especially when the round strikes only soft tissue, or when the rounds are loaded with an amount of powder that’s more than what’s needed, making those rounds overly powerful.

Hollow point rounds expand and flatten when striking objects

Below are other rounds we recovered after they’s struck hard surfaces at various angles. All were fired from the same gun. The flattened round on the left struck a steel surface head-in. To show the difference between striking a hard surface as opposed to something soft, the bullet at the far right was fired directly into a massively thick pile of foam rubber. It maintained its shape. The object at the top of the photo is an ejected brass casing. I took the photo at law enforcement firing range during a controlled exercise.

When a fired bullet enters a person’s skin, the tissue is instantly and forcefully dislocated outward from the center of the wound. The force is so great that the hole is, for a brief time, larger than the diameter of the bullet. However, skin is often elastic enough to reverse the action and draw the wound closed to a point where it’s sometimes smaller than the size of the bullet. This action totally dispels the fictional cops who, upon merely looking at a homicide victim’s bullet wounds, claim to instantly know the caliber of the bullet that caused the injury.

Exit wounds normally present pieces of avulsed flesh angled/beveled slightly away from the wound. Typically, there’s also no trace of gunshot residue around the outside of the wound.

Contact wounds occur when the muzzle is pressed against the skin when the weapon is fired

Contact wounds caused by the barrel of a gun touching the skin when the weapon is fired may present the imprint of the muzzle. The wounds sometimes show an abrasion ring (a dark, blackened circle around the wound) that’s caused as the hot gases from the weapon enters the flesh. The force of the gas blows the skin and tissue back against the gun’s muzzle, leaving the circular imprint.

  • In areas of “loose” skin, such as the abdomen or even the chest area, wounds likely present as circular with blackened, seared skin surrounding the wound opening.
  • On the head, entry wounds often appear as round punctures, again with blackened, seared skin surrounding the wound opening.
  • Contact entrance wounds routinely exhibit soot on the skin surrounding the injury,  and sometimes even laceration of the skin due to consequences of expelled gases from the firearm.

Near-contact wounds are caused when the muzzle of the gun is held a short distance from the skin. These wounds generally present as circular with blackened and seared edges. However, the searing and blackening cover a wider space than seen with contact wounds

Entrance and Exit Wounds in Bone

Entrance wounds in flat bones such as the skull are often round and show internal beveling in the direction of the bullet’s path. The shape and nature is quite similar to that of a cone.

Exit wounds in bone are most likely more irregular in shape than entry wounds and may show external beveling (a reverse cone), the opposite effect of the entrance wound.

 

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Solving Murders Using Maggots and Canned Tuna

Female blowflies lay eggs, hundreds of them, on moist and juicy decaying matter that’s rich in microbes. These egg-laying sites include, among others, rotting food and the decomposing corpses of animals and humans.

Immediately after hatching, the creepy offspring of their fly parents—maggots—go to work using enzymes and bacteria to break down their food source into a mouthwatering broth.

Blowfly maggots consume their tasty meals much in the same way as gluttonous Sunday afternoon diners at all-you-can-five-dollar-buffets—heads down and without stopping to breathe.

Maggots, though, have an advantage over human buffet-eaters. They’re able to enjoy their feasts while simultaneously breathing through their specially adapted rear ends. Humans, however, are forced to come up for air at least once or twice during a roadside steakhouse feeding frenzy.

In addition to having poor table manners, maggots are a useful tool for homicide investigators. In fact, the first known instance of flies helping out in a murder case was during the 13th century, when Chinese judge Sung T’zu  investigated a fatal stabbing in a rice field.

Flies Don’t Lie

At the scene of the murder, judge Sung T’zu instructed each of the workers to lay down their sickles. Soon, attracted by the smell of blood, flies began landing on one of the sickles, but not the others. Sure, the murderer cleaned their weapon prior to the judge’s arrival, but the faint odor of the victim’s blood was still present. It was clear to T’zu who’d committed the killing. In 1247, T’zu wrote about the case in the book The Washing Away of Wrongs, the oldest known book on forensic medicine.

Today, in murder cases, a maggot’s rate of growth can help estimate time of death. For example, when detectives find maggots on a body that are in their early larvae stages, when they’re 5mm in length, officers then will have a pretty good idea that the victim has been deceased for only a day and a half, or so.

When maggots ingest human tissue as nourishment, they simultaneously absorb remnants of substances previously consumed by the deceased, such as illegal and prescription drugs, and poisons. Subsequently, traces of those substances are retained within the bodies and exoskeletons of the maggots.

An insect’s hard external skeleton is made of chitin, a substance that’s similar to the keratin protein from which hair is formed. Since an insect’s chitin stores consumed toxins for a long time, and blowfly maggots shed their exoskeletons twice as it passes through each of three larval stages, a toxicology analyses of those exoskeletons could be helpful in determining the drug use of the victim, poisoning as a murder weapon, and more. This is an especially important tool when working with skeletal remains. In fact, a forensic analysis of insects is more dependable than hair as a means to detect drug use immediately prior to death.

Mummy-“Flied”

How long are substances (toxins, etc.) retained in an insects exoskeleton? Shed fly puparial cases been used for toxicological studies of mummified bodies found weeks, months, an even years after death. Some scientists believe it’s possible to detect drugs in the insects associated with ancient skeletal remains. After all, cocaine has been discovered in the hair of 3,000-year-old Peruvian mummies, so why not the same for the bugs who once feasted on those bodies?

Most evidence, of course, comes from live maggots collected from the body at the crime scene. Those specimens are gathered by crime scene investigators and transported to a forensics laboratory for testing. The trick is keeping the wiggly maggots alive until an analysis is performed. Therefore, some scientists recommend that crime scene investigators stock cans of tuna as part of their evidence collection kits.

Pop the top on the can and maggots are then able to feed on the tuna until they’re properly secured and handled by a qualified forensic entomologist.

It’s also important to place maggots in a container with air holes (even though they breathe through their butts, they’ve still got to breathe to survive).

Now, who’s having tuna for lunch today?

Yum …

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Postmortem Decomposition: How To Properly Rot Your Corpses

Putrefaction is the destruction of the soft tissue caused by two things, bacteria and enzymes.

As bacteria and enzymes do their jobs, the body immediately begins to discolor, and it slowly transform into liquids and gases. The odd thing about the bacteria that destroys the tissue at death is that much of it has been living in the respiratory and intestinal tracts all along. Of course, if the deceased had contracted a bacterial infection prior to death, bacteria, such as septicemia (blood poisoning), would aid in increasing the rate of decomposition.

Temperature also plays an important part in decomposition. 70 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit is the optimal range for bacteria and enzymes to do what they do best, while lower temperatures slow the process. Therefore, and obviously, a body will decompose faster during the sweltering days of summertime.

A blood-filled circulatory system acts as a super-highway for those organisms that destroy the body after death. Without blood the process of putrefaction is slowed.

Therefore, a murder victim whose body bled out will decompose at a slower rate than someone who died of natural causes.

People who were overweight at the time of their deaths decompose faster than skinny people. People who suffered from excessive fluid build up decompose faster than those who were dehydrated. And people with massive infections and congestive heart failure will also decompose at a more rapid rate than those without those conditions.

Bodies adorned in thick, heavy clothing (the material retains heat) decompose more rapidly than the norm. Electric blankets also speed up decomposition.

A body that’s buried in warm soil may decompose faster than one that’s buried during the dead of winter.

The type of soil that surrounds the body also has an effect on the rate of decomposition. For example, the soil in North Carolina is normally a reddish type of clay. Its density can greatly retard the decomposition process because it reduces the circulation of air that’s found in a less compacted, more sandy-type of earth.

Adult bodies buried in a well drained soil will typically become skeletonized in approximately 10 years. A child’s body in about five years.

The rule of thumb for the decomposition of a body is, (if at the same temperature) 8 weeks in well-drained soil equals two weeks in the water, or one week exposed to the air.

Now, hold on to your breakfast…

The first sign of decomposition under average conditions is a greenish discoloration of the skin at the abdomen. This is apparent at 36-72 hours.

Next – Small vessels in the skin become visible (marbling).

Marbling is followed by glistening skin, skin slippage, purplish skin, blisters, distended abdomen (after one week—caused by gases), blood-stained fluid oozing from body openings (nose, mouth, etc.), swelling of tissue and the presence of foul gaseous odor, greenish-purple face, swollen eyelids and pouting lips, swollen face, protruding tongue, hair pulls out easily, fingernails come off easily, skin from hands pulls off (gloving), body swells and appears greatly obese.

Internally, the body is decomposing and breaking down. The heart has become flabby and soft. The liver has honeycombed, and the kidneys are like wet sponges. The brain is nearly liquid, and the lungs may be a bit brittle.

Hmm … Flabby hearts and liquid brains. Sounds like a couple of my former employers.

Are you registered or plan to register to attend the 2022 Writers’ Police Academy? If so, you could receive an exciting offer from Writers’ Police Academy – a $50 rebate and FREE registration to a special live Writers’ Police Academy Online seminar taught by renowned expert Dr. Katherine Ramsland.
Dr. Ramsland’s Writers’ Police Academy Online session, “Behavioral Clues at Crime Scenes.”
Class description – Crime scenes always tell a story, which shows up most clearly in behavioral clues. This can mean anything from signatures that link crimes to indicators of staged crimes to predictors of dangerous future behavior. This session shows writers how to spot and interpret behavioral clues during criminal profiling, crime reconstruction, or psychological autopsy. 

To qualify for this amazing deal, you must register or already be registered to attend the 2022 Writers’ Police Academy. That’s step one. Step two – have a friend sign up to attend. It’s that easy! If your friend brings a friend then they, too, receive the same bonus opportunity.

Of course, you and your friend must attend the Writers’ Police Academy event in June to receive the rebate and free seminar registration. There is no limit as to how many rebates you may receive. If you refer ten friends and they each attend the WPA, well, you’ll receive $50 for each one. Twenty friends equal a rebate of $1,000! And so on.

Participants must notify Lee Lofland at lofland32@msn.com when referring a friend. The person you refer must be.a new registrant, not someone whose already signed up to attend. Rebates to be mailed in mid-June, after the conclusion of the 2022 Writers’ Police Academy. The date of Dr. Ramsland’s “Behavioral Clues at Crime Scenes” seminar is June 25, 2022. Session time – 11:00-12:30 EST.

 

We can’t wait to see you at the WPA in June!
Register to attend at the 2022 Writers’ Police Academy at www.writerspoliceacademy.com

Click here to see the list and descriptions of the 2022 classes.

Click here to read about the 2022 WPA instructors and presenters.

About Dr. Katherine Ramsland

Dr. Katherine Ramsland

Dr. Katherine Ramsland teaches forensic psychology at DeSales University in Pennsylvania, where she is the Assistant Provost. She has appeared on more than 200 crime documentaries and magazine shows, is an executive producer of Murder House Flip, and has consulted for CSI, Bones, and The Alienist. The author of more than 1,500 articles and 69 books, including The Forensic Science of CSI, The Forensic Psychology of Criminal Minds, How to Catch a Killer, The Psychology of Death Investigations, and Confession of a Serial Killer: The Untold Story of Dennis Rader, The BTK Killer, she was co-executive producer for the Wolf Entertainment/A&E documentary based on the years she spent talking with Rader. Dr. Ramsland consults on death investigations, pens a blog for Psychology Today, and is writing a fiction series based on a female forensic psychologist.

Dr. Ramsland is a Special Guest Speaker at the 2022 Writers’ Police Academy, where she’ll present “Conversations with the B.T.K. Killer, Dennis Rader.” The class focuses on the immersive process of interviewing a serial killer, the challenges of the prison system for such work, and the experience of co-producing the documentary. After hundreds of hours spent inside the mind of this serial killer, the B.T.K. Killer, Dennis Rader, in the context of many other killers Dr. Ramsland studied, she offers multiple insights for crime and mystery writing.

 

Sign up today!

www.writerspoliceacademy.com

 

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How to Write Killer Tales, and Music

Writing a realistic murder scene can and should be a bit difficult for most authors since they haven’t killed anyone, I hope. So, if realism is the goal, as it should be at times, then research is of the utmost importance.

I’m not in any way suggesting that a book should feature the bloodiest murder scene ever written. Instead, I’m merely pointing out things that can and are sometimes a factor in actual cases. So pick what you like and toss the rest. Just please remember that whatever you add to a scene must contribute to the story’s forward motion. If it doesn’t do that, well, the unused bits of information must go back inside your brain for storage until time to write the next book.

To help achieve the desired results, here are a few pointers for making a murder scene ring true. Warning, some of this is not for those of you with a weak of stomach.

Believe me, this is a convoluted post.

Dead People Have a Story to Tell

Relying on the advice of people with experience is a good thing, and this includes research for all areas of cop and forensics information. The best material comes from people who’re in the field. The same is also true for other areas of expertise. For example, should I need information about colonoscopies I turn to medical professionals not police officers. Although, cops do to tend to deal with more than their fair share of “a**holes.”

A dead body is, simply and sadly put, a piece of evidence found at crime scenes. But the body is different than other evidentiary items in that it has a unique story to tell that’s full of intricate details waiting to be discovered.

Solving a homicide case, as I’ve said many times, is like assembling a jigsaw puzzle contained in a box without a picture of the final product on its cover. Inside the plainly-wrapped box are irregularly-shaped pieces, the clues and evidence needed to piece together the identity—the face—of the killer. All the parts are there, scattered about, and it’s a detective’s skills, thought processes, creativity, and experience that brings them all together.

Using Music to Solve a Murder

As a musician who enjoyed music theory classes, studying about how music is made, I sometimes approached evidence in a murder case much like a composer uses chords to enrich and deepen a piece of music.

A chord is two or more notes played simultaneously. Chords are often designed to be played in harmony (a pleasing arrangement of simultaneously played notes). Discord occurs when one or more notes played don’t fit. They’re out of place and their combined sounds are harsh and unpleasant.

When determining which items were essential parts of a case (true and necessary evidence, the chord), I first searched for the note(s) that were out of place—the discord—the pieces that didn’t fit the chord/puzzle. Those out of tune/disharmonious bits and pieces and non-clues were set aside, leaving only the things needed to advance the case. It’a a way to pave the way and avoid the waste of precious time examining things of little or no evidentiary value.

For example, here’s how a C chord looks on paper.

Music scale

As seen in the image below, the C scale starts at C and then progresses through D, E, F, G, A, B, and finally to C at an octave higher than the initial C note.

To make a C major chord the musician simultaneously plays the first, the third, and the fifth note of the scale. In the scale above, the first, third, and fifth note of the C scale are C, E, and G. The result is a chord, a harmonious and pleasing sound to the ear. The remaining notes, if played at the same time, would result in discord, or an unpleasant sound. Although, like bits of evidence that don’t seem to have a role in the beginning stages of a case, it’s possible those off-standard notes (evidence) could play a role down the road.

C major chord

Guitar strings are tuned to individual notes

FYI – The strings on a guitar are tuned to individual notes – first string (the skinniest string that’s located at the bottom) is tuned to an E. The next on the way up toward the largest string is the B string, or second string. The third string is tuned to G. The fourth to D. The fifth to A. And the fattest and heaviest sixth string is also tuned to E.

Playing a C Major Chord on Guitar

Finger positioning for a C major chord.

To play a C major chord on the guitar, use your first finger, the index finger, to press the the second string in the first fret. The second finger (the middle finger) presses the 4th string in the second fret. And the third finger (ring finger) presses the fifth string in the third fret. Strings one and three remain open (not pressed) and are strummed/played along with strings 2, 4, and 5. The sixth string in not played/strummed.

The same is true when searching for items of evidentiary value—the Ds, Fs, and As were placed in the “later” file, were the b-flats as a maybe. As the saying goes, “If the glove doesn’t fit, you must acquit.” Eliminate unnecessary items, but always keep them in mind in case they may somehow fit into the puzzle at a later time. There’s music theory for this scenario, the added B-flat note, but we’ll “tune” it out for now.

My life experiences differ from that of many writers. I’ve seen dead bodies mangled and torn apart by impact with fast-moving moving trains and automobiles. I’ve witnessed gruesome crimes scenes, places where reddish-brown coagulating and crusty blood and splotches of gray brain matter spattered living room walls like macabre floor-to-ceiling  abstract artwork.

Some murder scenes are messy. Others are not. Your tales are fictional so you can pick the type of scene that best suits your style and your audience. Gore is not for everyone.

However …

Slip and Slide

When blood and avulsed flesh and bits of brain and entrails first make contact with polished marble, tile, and even hardwood, those surfaces immediately become slimy and slippery like freshly waxed and still-wet floors. As a result, a killer could experience difficulty walking in a normal manner. Their footprints will reflect those awkward steps by the smearing and streaking left behind in the body fluids and other matter.

Bloody drag marks through rapidly coagulating blood are evidence a killer removed a heavy object by pulling it along the floor. The further from the kill site the thinner the trail becomes until it disappears entirely.

Swipes (Wipes) – Caused by a bloody object being wiped across another surface (these stains are the reason from changing the name from bloodspatter to bloodstain).

When striking surfaces at an angle, blood spatter points to the position of both the victim and the murder weapon when the act was committed. Each droplet is practically a flashing neon sigh that says, “OVER THERE!”

Directionality – indicates the direction blood was moving at the time it struck a surface. The shape of the drops are good indicators of direction of travel.

Suicides can be extremely gruesome

I’ve seen suicide victims whose lives ended by shotgun blasts that absolutely disintegrated large portions of their faces and skulls. An eye here or there. Teeth over there. A chunk of bone and hair clinging and hanging to the ceiling by a wet and oozy and drippy stringlike spooze of slimy human something or other.

Suicide scenes are often eerie and depressing for cops. Writing about them could affect someone in the same manner. Use caution when doing so, especially if you’re drawing on real-life experiences about friends and/or loved ones.

Characteristics of a blood drop

  • blood drops are formed by gravity
  • blood drops cannot break apart unless contacted by an outside force
  • larger drops travel further than smaller drops (due to mass, not size)
  • blood drops always travel in an arcing path (impact injuries)
  • size ranges from a few millimeters to few centimeters
  • volume of a drop of blood is in direct proportion to whatever it’s dropping from (ax, stick, arm, leg, etc)

Crime scene investigators typically measure bloodstains that hit surfaces on the way up, not stains made by blood that’s on its way back down. Stains made when traveling upward are much more accurate for use as evidence because gravity is not as much of a factor in the pattern’s formation.

I’ve sat across a table or desk from murderers who told of the fear they experienced both before and after the slashing, cutting, stabbing, hacking, strangling, choking, chopping, bludgeoning, shooting, or beating they’d delivered to their victims. They told of a second of satisfaction they’d felt the moment their knife poked through the skin of their victim, feeling sort of like the popping-through of the clear covering of supermarket-packaged meats.

They explained the wait leading up to the time of the actual act. All the thoughts zipping through their minds. The anger and rage. The deep sadness. The overwhelming “knowing” they were about to kill another human.

Some told of a brief sense of relief after the deed was done. They explained that overall, for a brief split second, the feeling was that of relief, a heavy weight lifted from their shoulders and from deep inside their core.

Others spoke of tremendous remorse and grief, of self-pity and heartache. They worried about family, theirs and the victim’s.

Many were relieved that the killing was all said and done, something that was necessary.

A few simply didn’t care one way or another.

The thought of prison frightens many killers, especially those who’d ended someone’s life during “the heat of the moment,” with no forethought/premeditation.

A handful welcomed the idea of spending a few years in prison, no longer having to worry about the daily grind of day-to-day life and the responsibilities facing them on the outside. Many had served time in the past and knew the ins and outs. Life doesn’t mean much to those folks and it’s obvious. They’re callous and numb to emotion.

Unlike the uncaring murderer, your readers have emotions. It’s your job to stimulate those senses with images painted into the minds of your fans, using words generated from yours.

So make each and every letter count. It’s a responsibility that comes with the territory.

WPA and Graveyard Shift Merch

It’s that time of the year, when we all begin to think of holiday gift-giving. It’s also the time of year when planning for the annual Writers’ Police Academy is well underway and, in fact, is nearing completion for the all new and super exciting 2022 event. Therefore, while you’re in the shopping mood, please consider browsing the WPA’s Zazzle store, where you can find WPA merch as well as items featuring a few of the wacky characters from this blog. Proceeds go toward the funding of the Writers’ Police Academy.

As always, we appreciate your support!

Here’s a sample of the items for offer. And yes, the quirky drawings are my goofy creations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

For more items, please visit the Official WPA Merch page.

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The FBI’s Forensic Laboratory: Evidence Collection and Requests for Submissions

The FBI’s forensic laboratory is one of the largest in the world, and its services and capabilities are far-reaching. You name it and they’ve got it. You need it and they can do it.  To sweeten the pot, their services, examinations, testings, and expert courtroom testimonies are free to all FBI field offices, U.S. attorneys, the U.S. military, all other federal agencies, and state, county, and municipal law enforcement agencies, including those in U.S. territories.

Of course, there are limitations and exceptions. For example, the FBI laboratory does not accept requests for service in civil matters unless the request is from a federal agency. Nor will they accept requests for service from private citizens or non-governmental agencies (private investigators, etc.).

There is a process required for sending evidence to the FBI laboratory for examination/testing, and the procedure is not as simple as mailing Aunt Betty Lou’s annual birthday card. Instead, depending upon the items(s) and their nature, the FBI lab, like all forensic laboratories, has specific guidelines that must be followed.

Per the FBI, all requests for evidence examinations should be in writing, complete with official department letterhead. The request must be addressed to the FBI Laboratory Evidence Management Program, unless otherwise indicated in the Examinations section (see below for examples).

Each request for evidence examinations/testing must contain:

  • ‹‹The submitting contact person’s name, agency, address, and telephone number;
  • ‹‹Previous case-identification numbers, evidence submissions, and communications relating to the case;
  • ‹‹Description of the nature and the basic facts of the case as they pertain to evidence examinations;
  • ‹‹The name(s) of and descriptive data about the individual(s) involved (subject, suspect, victim, or a combination of those categories) and the agency-assigned, case-identification number;
  • The violation associated with the evidence;
  • ‹‹If requested, the need for expedited examination
  • ‹‹Name of the relevant prosecutor’s office or prosecutor assigned, if available;

‹‹A list of the evidence being submitted and a copy of the letter should be included in all containers in which evidence has been shipped to the laboratory. The letter should be placed in a separate envelope within the shipping container.

Other items to be included in an official request:

  • ‹‹What type(s) of examination(s) is/are requested;
  • ‹‹Where the evidence should be returned and where the Laboratory report should be sent—street address and phone number.

Collection and packaging evidence

Packaging and collection methods vary depending upon the type and nature of evidence.

For example:

Anthropological Examinations

Anthropological examinations involve the analysis of skeletal remains (or potential skeletal remains). Laboratory testing can result in the determination, interpretation, or estimation of whether the evidence is skeletal (bone or tooth) versus a material other than bone. ‹Scientists can also determine whether bones are human or non-human, if the bones submitted are from more than one person, and the age of the bones—present day or ancient.

‹‹Biological information obtained from certain bones could indicate age, sex, ancestry, and size (height and weight of the person when alive). ‹‹It’s possible to determine the manner of death if by trauma—projectile, blunt or edged weapon, such as by knife, sword, ax, etc. And, of course, identification of the victim by comparison to medical records and DNA.

 FBI forensic anthropologists are available to assist in the detection and recovery of remains, if needed.

Collection and packaging of anthropological evidence

‹‹Collect bones (or small bone assemblages) individually in paper bags or other breathable material. Aluminum foil may be shaped and formed around burned or fragile bones. Sealed plastic packaging may be acceptable for remains with fresh/wet tissue, an exception to the typical “wet evidence in paper container” rule. ‹‹Include cold packs and/or ‘Biohazard’ stickers. Place stabilizing material inside the container—bubble wrap, etc.– to prevent movement of contents which could damage bone material. ‹‹

Bullet Examinations

A fired bullet can be examined to determine weight, caliber, and rifling characteristics (GRCs). GRCs are the number, width, and direction of twist of the rifling grooves imprinted on a fired bullet as it passes through the barrel of a firearm. Scientists conduct microscopic examinations of submitted bullets to determine if any distinctive marks of value are present. If investigators submit a suspected firearm a comparison is done between a bullet fired from the weapon and the bullet in question. A match determines the that firearm  is indeed the one used in the crime.

If a suspect firearm is not available to submit as evidence (not located, etc.), examiners compare the fired bullet to those in the FBI Laboratory’s GRC database, which could produce a match to a firearm that could have fired the round.

When examining fired bullets, and when comparing them to known samples (bullets test-fired from suspect’s weapon and compared to round found at the scene or inside a body), investigators and/or scientists should record the following information.

  • Caliber/gauge
  • Bullet/slug weight
  • The number of land and grooves
  • Direction of twist
  • Width of  lands
  • Width of grooves
  • Bullet diameter.
  • Composition of bullet.
  • Style.
  • Manufacturer/marketer of bullet/projectile. If applicable, use reference materials such as an ammunition database.
  • Detailed description  of the bullet.
  • Note type and position of cannelures.
  • Note any foreign/extraneous markings—shave marks, flared base, etc.
  • If possible, compare marks on bullets with tests from a firearm or with other bullets.

Click this link to read more about USING LANDS AND GROOVES TO SOLVE MURDERS

Collection and packaging of bullets

‹‹Package bullets to prevent contact with other bullets.

‹‹Hand delivery of bullets is not a requirement. Instead, they can be sent to the FBI lab via Registered Mail through the U.S. Postal Service. Evidence must be packaged separately and identified by date, time, location, collector’s name, case number, and evidence number. It is important to not mark bullets or other firearm-related evidence. Dates, times, location found, evidence collector’s name, case and evidence number must be on the package containing the evidence (bullets).

Bullet v. Ammunition – There is a Difference!

Bullet – an elongated missile of some type (lead, etc.) that’s to be fired from a firearm. A bullet is one part of a complete round of ammunition.

From ATF – Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives:

Gun Control Act Definitions

Ammunition

The term “Ammunition” means ammunition or cartridge cases, primers, bullets, or propellant powder designed for use in any firearm.

The term shall not include (a) any shotgun shot or pellet not designed for use as the single, complete projectile load for one shotgun hull or casing, nor (b) any unloaded, non-metallic shotgun hull or casing not having a primer.

ATF image

USPS – Shipping Ammunition

The United States Postal Service prohibits sending live ammunition through the U.S. mail. FYI – Also not allowed to be shipped through U.S. mail are:

And, for fun, here are other items that are prohibited by the USPS:

  • Arsenic
  • Asphalt at or above its flashpoint
  • Bombs of any type
  • Grenades
  • Hydrogen peroxide stabilized, or Hydrogen peroxide aqueous solutions, stabilized with more than 60 percent hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide, in its pure form, is a pale blue liquid. When diluted water (3–6% by weight) its used by consumers as an oxidizer, bleaching agent, and as an antiseptic. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or “high-test peroxide”; however, decomposes explosively when heated and can and has been used as rocket propellant.

UPS and FedEX accept packages containing ammunition

The following is from the UPS website.

UPS – How to Ship Ammunition (Cartridges, Small Arms) 

UPS accepts for transportation such ammunition as constitutes “cartridges, small arms,” as defined in 49 C.F.R. § 173.59. All other allowable ammunition shipments are accepted only on a contractual basis, and must be prepared under the rules for a fully regulated hazardous material.

To read more, visit the UPS website here.

Biological Material 

The FBI Laboratory provides expertise for conducting examinations on biological evidence needed for the determination of, for example, speciation, identification, relatedness, and designed genetic modifications. These examinations; however, are conducted at FBI-designated partner laboratories. Examples of biological materials that can be examined include:

  • ‹‹Pathogenic microbes (including select agents). ‹‹Non-pathogenic microbes.
  • ‹‹Animals.
  • ‹‹Plants.
  • ‹‹Insects.
  • ‹‹Biological toxins.
  • ‹‹Genetically modified organisms.
  • ‹‹Synthetically produced organisms or biological materials.

Questions, questions, and more questions!

Writers often have questions regarding how death investigators identify victims of disasters—explosions, building collapse, etc.

Another common topic I see from time to time relates to the federal DNA database of convicted felons. Unfortunately, many of the fictional scenes where this information appears is, well, a bit far from reality.

To address these questions and topics it’s probably best to quote directly from the FBI’s Forensic Services to avoid any missteps. I have: however, omitted a bit of information, such as contact phone number, addresses, and a bit of behind the scenes technical material. Still, there’s enough here (below) to help add a ton of realism to your novels.

FBI Disaster Victim Identification

The FBI Laboratory Division maintains a Disaster Victim Identification Team (DVI Team). This team of highly trained experts and their assets are deployed to mass casualty scenes worldwide to assist in the identification of victims. They do so through friction ridge analysis of fingerprints, palm prints, and footprints.

The DVI Team uses specialized postmortem fingerprint recovery techniques. These techniques involve the use of remote automated fingerprint search capabilities (AFIS). The DVI Team also collects postmortem and antemortem fingerprints of victims, and they identify friction ridge skin of the deceased.

Per the FBI – “Deployment of the FBI DVI Team requires consent from the disaster scene medical examiner or coroner, a ranking law enforcement or government official, a representative of the National Transportation Safety Board, or a representative of the U.S. Department of State. Requests for assistance must be made through the nearest FBI field office or the FBI’s Strategic Information and Operations Center.

Federal DNA Database Examinations – Federal Convicted Offender

The FBI’s Federal DNA Database Unit produces DNA profiles from offenders who’ve been convicted of federal offenses, and from Federal arrestees and detainees. Collected DNA is entered into the National DNA Index System and is used for comparison to DNA samples found at crime scenes.

DNA collection kits are provided at no charge to collection agencies. These agencies include the Bureau of Prisons; federal probation districts; Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency, and any federal agency that makes federal arrests or detains non- U.S. persons on immigration charges and is required by law to submit DNA samples.

‹‹Samples from the following will be accepted:

  • Individuals identified in 42 U.S.C. 14135 (a)(1)(a). *see below for explanation of 42 U.S.C 14135 (a)(1)(a)
  • Individuals required registering in a sex offender registry identified in the Sexual Offender Registration and Notification Act (SORNA).

‹‹Samples from the following will NOT be accepted

  • Samples given voluntarily by individuals not identified in 42 U.S.C. 14135 (a)(1) (a).
  • Samples used as reference specimens in criminal cases.
DNA Identification – 42 U.S.C. § 14135a (2012)
 

§14135a. Collection and use of DNA identification information from certain Federal offenders(a) Collection of DNA samples(1) From individuals in custody

(A) The Attorney General may, as prescribed by the Attorney General in regulation, collect DNA samples from individuals who are arrested, facing charges, or convicted or from non-United States persons who are detained under the authority of the United States. The Attorney General may delegate this function within the Department of Justice as provided in section 510 of title 28 and may also authorize and direct any other agency of the United States that arrests or detains individuals or supervises individuals facing charges to carry out any function and exercise any power of the Attorney General under this section.

(B) The Director of the Bureau of Prisons shall collect a DNA sample from each individual in the custody of the Bureau of Prisons who is, or has been, convicted of a qualifying Federal offense (as determined under subsection (d) of this section) or a qualifying military offense, as determined under section 1565 of title 10.

(2) From individuals on release, parole, or probation

The probation office responsible for the supervision under Federal law of an individual on probation, parole, or supervised release shall collect a DNA sample from each such individual who is, or has been, convicted of a qualifying Federal offense (as determined under subsection (d) of this section) or a qualifying military offense, as determined under section 1565 of title 10.

(3) Individuals already in CODIS

For each individual described in paragraph (1) or (2), if the Combined DNA Index System (in this section referred to as “CODIS”) of the Federal Bureau of Investigation contains a DNA analysis with respect to that individual, or if a DNA sample has been collected from that individual under section 1565 of title 10, the Attorney General, the Director of the Bureau of Prisons, or the probation office responsible (as applicable) may (but need not) collect a DNA sample from that individual.

(4) Collection procedures

(A) The Attorney General, the Director of the Bureau of Prisons, or the probation office responsible (as applicable) may use or authorize the use of such means as are reasonably necessary to detain, restrain, and collect a DNA sample from an individual who refuses to cooperate in the collection of the sample.

(B) The Attorney General, the Director of the Bureau of Prisons, or the probation office, as appropriate, may enter into agreements with units of State or local government or with private entities to provide for the collection of the samples described in paragraph (1) or (2).

(5) Criminal penalty

An individual from whom the collection of a DNA sample is authorized under this subsection who fails to cooperate in the collection of that sample shall be—

(A) guilty of a class A misdemeanor; and

(B) punished in accordance with title 18.

Collection and packaging

‹‹A Request for National DNA Database Entry form (FD-936) must be submitted. Entries must be in legibly written  in blue or black ink and write legibly. A typewriter may also be used to compile the form..

‹‹At least one unique identifying number (Social Security Number, BOP Number, FBI Number, Alien number) for the subject/offender must be present on the FD-936.

‹‹Legible fingerprints must be present on the FD-936 and the fingerprint collector must sign at the bottom of the form. 

‹‹For FTA collection devices (blue collection devices)

Record the subject’s name in the area indicated on the FTA cards contained in the blue buccal collection devices. This name must match the name written on the FD-936.

An FTA card is a chemically treated filter paper designed for the collection of biological samples for subsequent DNA analysis.

‹‹For BODE DNA Collector (gray collection device)

The subject’s name is recorded in the area indicated on the handle base. This name must match the name written on the FD- 936.

‹‹FD-936 forms have a barcode to match the barcode on the buccal collection devices in the kit. Because of this, FD-936 forms cannot be intermixed between buccal collection kits.

‹‹When collection is complete, remember that the tamper evident seal should be secured by removing the backing and sealing it evenly. Do not moisten the envelope seal with saliva to close.

‹‹Once the seal is closed, the kit should not be reopened. If the collector must open the kit after sealing, tape over the seal, and initial and date over the new seal.

*BODE Collector is not to be confused with Jeff Deaver’s book “The Bone Collector.”

Bode Buccal® DNA Collection Systems are devices used for the collection of DNA from buccal samples. To learn more, click here.

Federal DNA Database Buccal DNA Collection Kit

‹‹Complete instructions for the use of the Buccal DNA Collection Kits are located on the back of the FD-936 form. A separate sheet of paper directing proper sampling procedure is also included in the kit.

‹‹When collecting a sample using the Buccal DNA Collection Kit:

  • Wear the gloves provided in the kit.
  • Using the fingerprint ink strip provided in the kit, ink the left and right index fingers of the individual and roll the appropriate index finger in the assigned box on the FD-936, starting with the inward edge of the finger and rolling away from the body.

Sources:

  • Portions of this article are paraphrased excerpts from the FBI Laboratory Division’s handbook, and some are quotes directly from the handbook. Other information is from my personal knowledge and experience.
  • FBI Laboratory Division.
  • ATF – Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives.

More information is on the way!

 

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Homicide Investigations: Solving the Murder Puzzle

A homicide case is a puzzle, and it’s the job of the investigator to put the pieces together until they see a picture emerge. They may not always complete an entire image, but there should be enough there to clearly know that a crime was indeed committed and that the face that emerged from the puzzle is definitely that of the suspect.

Here are some of the major points/puzzle pieces to consider when investigating a murder.

1. When conducting a homicide investigation always take time to look at the case from the point of view of the defense attorney. What holes are in the case? What does your case lack? What’s missing? What areas could a defense attorney attack? Find those things and then locate the evidence needed to fill the voids. If there’s evidence out there, find it. If it’s not, then know the reason(s) why it’s unavailable. If details are left open-ended, a good defense attorney will use untidy loose ends as a means to indicate their client’s innocence. “If the detective had simply gone one step further they’d have discovered that my client could not be guilty of the crime!” Besides, the things you discover while approaching the case from this angle will almost always help build a better and stronger case.

2. Direct Evidence and Circumstantial Evidence.

A woman is standing at the counter of a dry cleaning store waiting for the clerk to come from the back room. She’s startled by a loud bang. The door to the room opens and a bald man holding a gun in hand runs out and then continues running outside through the open front door. The woman goes into the back room and sees the female clerk lying on the floor. She’s dead from what appears to be a gunshot wound to the head. There is no other entrance or exit from the room. The customer calls the police.

Direct Evidence is something actually observed by the witness, or clear evidence of fact. In the case above the direct evidence is:

a) The sound of the gunshot. The customer actually heard the sound.

b) The customer saw a bald man emerge from the room and he was holding a gun in his hand.

c) The clerk is lying on the floor with what appears to be a gunshot wound to her head. Blood, or what appears to be blood, is on the floor around the head of the victim.

Above image is from the Writers’ Police Academy’s “Treating the Trauma Patient” workshop. It is a staged photo and no one was harmed. The smile on the “victim’s face, however, was very real. She enjoyed teaching writers.

*Officers may not testify that the reddish-brownish liquid substance on the carpet was blood because at the time the material had not been tested and identified by laboratory experts. They may only testify to what they actually know, not what they think.

Circumstantial Evidence relates to fact or a series of facts that infers, but does not implicitly prove, another fact. In the case above we can infer, circumstantially, that the bald man who ran out of the room was indeed the killer because no one else was there, and there was no way anyone could have escaped other than by exiting the front door.

Now let’s revisit the case of the Washed Up Dry Cleaner, but from the defense attorney’s point of view. We, as investigators, know this … The clerk was killed by a gunshot wound to the head. A customer saw a bald man holding a gun run out of the back and then escape out into the street.

The defense attorney is already thinking of angles to defend their client, such as … It’s possible the clerk had tried to kill the bald man who managed to grab the gun, which accidentally discharged during a struggle. Or, the bald man, fearing for his life, fled from the business while still clutching the pistol. Suppose the bald man had witnessed the clerk shoot herself as an attempted suicide, so he panicked, grabbed the gun, and ran to get help? Was there a romantic tie between the two that could’ve resulted in a “heat of the moment” act of violence?

These are puzzle pieces that must be located in order to prove the “maybe this, maybe that” theories wrong, and that the bald man indeed killed the clerk, or not.

3. Proving Fact. 

We have the evidence, both direct and circumstantial, so how to we prove the bald man killed the clerk, or that he did not commit the crime? Let’s start by proving the defense theories wrong. Suicide? We’ll check for close contact powder burns and/or stippling, and gunshot residue on the hands of the victim. None there, so suicide is most likely not an option. The same is true for a struggle over the weapon (the self defense claim). No signs of a struggle—defensive wounds, items in the room overturned. Again, no close contact powder burns and/or stippling.

It’s safe to conclude the shooting took place from a distance, not at close range.

Through our investigation, we’ve learned there was no connection between the victim and her killer. Security video shows no one else entered the store other than Bald Man and the witness.

By proving the potential defense theories wrong, we’ve now bolstered our murder case against the bald man.

4. MOM – Motive, Opportunity, and Means

Now that we’ve definitely set our sights on Bald Man as the probable killer, it’s time to dig deep into the box to begin pulling out the puzzle pieces featuring specific details. So let’s call on MOM to help.

M = Motive. At this point, we don’t know the motive so we have to begin a search of the suspect’s personal history (gambling debt, robbery, infidelity, etc.). Detectives will attempt to learn the motive as the investigation progresses.

O = Opportunity. Check. We know that Bald Man was there at the scene of the crime.

M = Means. Check. Bald Man definitely had a gun.

In addition to MOM, there are a few other considerations on our handy checklist, such as:

Intent – Did Bald Man intend to kill the clerk? Ties to motive.

Plan – Did Bald Man plan to kill the clerk? Was this a premeditated act? If so, why? Ties to motive.

Preparation – Did Bald Man take steps to carry out his plan? Did he stockpile ammunition. Did he try to hire someone to commit the murder for him? Get his affairs in order in case he’s caught and goes to jail.

All of these details will be revealed during a thorough investigation.

5. First Responders.

It’s important to alert, train, and beg first responders—patrol officers, EMS, fire, etc. to not muddy up the crime scene by moving, tainting, disrupting, contaminating, or handling evidence.

6. The Crime Scene.

The back room of the dry cleaners is where the shooting took place, therefore it is the primary crime scene, or scene of the crime.

Suppose Bald Man hides the pistol in a dumpster down the street and it’s found by garbage collectors who alert police to their discovery. The dumpster is then a secondary crime scene, or simply a crime scene. Anyplace where evidence of a crime is found is considered to be a crime scene or secondary crime scene. Investigators should label each of those locations appropriately and orderly (Secondary Crime Scene A – dumpster at corner of Main and Killer, Secondary Crime Scene B – top dresser drawer in master bedroom of Bald Man’s residence at 666 Manson Lane, etc.).

7. Sometimes it’s best to work a case in reverse by ruling out potential suspects who couldn’t have committed the crime. Then, when all is said and done, the last man standing, so to speak, is the killer.

So there you have it, a few of the basic steps to solving a murder puzzle.

Finally, click the link for a detailed list of Homicide Investigation Do’s and Don’t’s. 

_________________________________________________________________________________________

In case you’re still concerned about the “victim” in the above photo, here she is again enjoying a bite to eat between classes at the Writers’ Police Academy.

2011-09-24_10-04-25_206

The makeup used in these workshops is extremely realistic.

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Academy Instructor Detective Sergeant Dilly Pickle: Homicide Crime Scenes

Good morning, cadets. My name is Detective Sergeant Dilly Pickle. I’m your instructor today and my topic is Introduction of Homicide Crime Scenes.

Before we begin I want you to totally scrub your minds clean of everything you’ve seen about crime scene investigation on television and film, and that you’ve read in many crime novels. Much of the stuff out there is a convoluted tangled mixture of information that’s bad, good, and downright fantasy, so it’s best we start fresh, with the basics.

Now, let’s see a show of hands. How many of you think you know where a homicide scene begins?

You there, in the back … Yes, you are 100% correct. A homicide crime scene begins at the point or place where the suspect’s thoughts of committing the murder transformed into action. And, the “crime scene “continues to any place where evidence of the crime could be found, such as the entire route taken by the suspect as he left the place where the crime occurred—through the back door, into and around a garden shed, across the neighbor’s lawn, down an alleyway, the sidewalk on Maple Avenue, the abandoned dirt lot the kids use for baseball games, and, well, you get the idea.

Any questions? No? Let’s continue.

The primary homicide crime scene, however, is always the location where a body is discovered. Sometimes victims are murdered in one location but their bodies are transported to other areas as a means to conceal the crime. In those instances the place where the body is found is the primary homicide crime scene. The site of the murder, when it becomes known, then becomes a secondary crime scene. All other locations where evidence could be/is discovered—footprints, a cigarette butt discarded by the killer in the backyard, the murder weapon in a dumpster three blocks away, are secondary crime scenes. Of course, many times the primary homicide crime scene and the location of the body are one and the same.

  • A crime scene is any location where potential evidence may be located.

  • Scene of the crime is the specific, physical location where a crime occurred.

There are nearly as many different ways to approach and investigate a crime scene as there are detectives in line at donut establishments. I suspect their orders—chocolate-covered, glazed, bear claw, etc.—are as diverse as their personalities and ways they approach the job. But, despite the menagerie of varying quirks and thought processes, there are things that should be done at all homicide crime scenes. For example …

Document the findings at the crime scene:

1. Document air temperature at the scene (ambient air).

2. Document body temperature—cold, warm, frozen, etc. This is “to the touch.” Cops do not insert thermometers into any portion of a human body.

  • Algor mortis is simply the cooling down of the body after death. It’s the quest to reach room temperature.One method of determining the time of death is to take the rectal temperature of the deceased. Next, subtract that number from 98.6 (average, normal human body temp), and then divide the remaining number by 1.5 (the average cooling rate of a body per hour under average conditions). The result is the approximate number of hours that passed after the victim kicked the bucket.

3. Document livor mortis (lividity)—was livor mortis present, and at what stage? Was it fixed? Was body position consistent with the stage of livor mortis? Did someone move the body?

  • Livor Mortis, or lividity, is the pooling of blood in the lowest portions of the body. Lividity is caused by gravity and begins immediately after death. The telltale signs of livor mortis, the purplish discoloration of the skin, begins the moment the heart stops pumping. This process continues for approximately 6-12 hours, depending upon surrounding conditions, until it becomes fixed, permanently staining the tissue in the lowest parts of the body. When large areas become engorged with lividity, the capillaries in those areas sometimes rupture causing what’s known as Tardieu spots. Tardieu spots present as round, brownish blacks spots.

4. Document rigor mortis—what stage of rigor? Was the rigor consistent with the crime scene? Did someone move the body?

  • Rigor Mortis, the contracting and stiffening of the muscles after death, takes a couple of hours to begin and completes in approximately 8-12 hours. The process starts in the smaller muscles of the head and face and moves downward to the larger muscles. When rigor is complete, the process reverses itself starting with the lower large muscles and ending with the smaller face and head muscles. The entire process can last for approximately 48 hours. The body will quickly decompose after rigor is complete.

5. Document degree of decomposition—skeletonization, putrefaction, mummification, etc.

I know many of you have plans to travel to the beach this weekend, so before you go you should study the article below. And, yes, you”ll be tested on the information. So, please click the image to begin reading.

Bacteria Beach: Postmortem Decomposition and the Talking Dead

6. Document animal activity—was the body in any way altered by animals?

7. Photograph the body exactly as it was found. And, the ground beneath the body should be photographed once the body has been removed.

8. Document victim’s physical characteristics—description of the body, including scars, marks, tattoos, clothing, jewelry, and obvious wounds).

9. Make note of the type of on-scene emergency medical care, or the lack of treatment.

10. Document presence of body fluids and where they’re found (mouth, nose, beneath the body, etc.). Also note if there’s no indication of body fluids.

11. Bag the victim’s hands (and bare feet) in clean, unused paper bags.

12. Collect, or arrange for the collection of trace and other evidence.

13. Determine the need for alternate light sources and other specialized equipment.

DSC0097014. Photograph the victim’s face for future identification purposes (remember, most present-day identifications are done via photograph or video).

15. Make note of the presence of insects. Photograph and collect samples of each.

16. Protect the body from further injury and/or contamination.

17. Supervise the placement of the body into a body bag, and install the proper seal/securing.

18. Ensure the proper removal and transportation of the body.

19. Who, What, Where, How, and When. Who discovered the body? Who was present when the body was discovered? Where was the body discovered? How was the victim killed? When was the body discovered? Who witnessed the murder? Etc. Document all, no matter how insignificant it sounds at the time.

20. Document EMS records/activity. Obtain a copy of the EMS call sheet/report, if possible.

21. Document witness statements—what they observed, the victim’s actions prior to death, killer’s description, etc.

22. Note medical examiner’s comments.

23. Obtain witness statements and contact information.

24. Document the names and contact information of everyone present at the scene (officers, EMS, medical examiner, witnesses, etc.).

25. Be certain that all evidence has been recovered before releasing the scene.

Well, that’s it for today’s class. You have twenty minutes to change into your PT attire and assemble on the lawn outside the dorms. We have a nice five-mile run lined up for your enjoyment, followed by an hour of stimulating exercise.

See you tomorrow.

 

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Murder, It Sucks The Air Out Of Living

There’s nothing in this world like entering an abandoned house in mid July to begin working a murder case, a scene where the pungent and putrid scent of rotting human flesh and organs fill your nostrils and lungs and adheres tightly to your clothing, hair, and skin like an invisible, gag-inducing, impossible-to-remove film.

If the stifling heat, humidity, and gut-wrenching stench of decomposing human don’t get to you, well, the flies, maggots, and other creepy critters that crawl in and out of the vicim’s mouth, ears, nose, open wounds and other body openings certainly will. But, it’s a job that falls into the laps of homicide cops—it’s what they do—and it’s a job that requires a special skill set. Not to mention a stomach made of cast iron and steel plating.

So let’s open the door to the house at the end of your street—the old Victorian that’s been empty for two years and is now surrounded by waist-high weeds. The once beautifully manicured lawn is now a graveyard for litter and other garbage left behind by transients and the kids who toss their empty fast food wrappers and plastic soda bottles over the rusted chain-link fence. The window panes are broken and many of the  shingles have fallen off.

For months now neighbors have seen a homeless man going and coming, but suddenly realized that he hadn’t been around in the past two weeks, and there’s that strong odor. Like something is … dead.

So they call the police and before long the neighborhood is overrun by patrol cars and crime scene tape.

Inside the murder house, detectives are doing what they do best. They’re checking all the boxes on their mental checklist. And now their focus is on the victim.

The Effects of Death on the Human Body

Prior to the removal of a body from the crime scene, homicide investigators should note (and photograph) the presence of each of the following in his/her report:

1) Livor/Lividity (color, location, blanchability, Tardieu spots, other coloring). Are these consistent or inconsistent with the current positioning of the body.

Remember, lividity is the pooling of blood/purplish staining of tissue at the lowest portions of a dead body, caused by gravity. Livor continues to form for up to 8 – 12 hours after death. This process can be slowed to as much as 36 hours in a cool environment, including a morgue cooler.

To test for blanchability, a death investigator uses a finger(s) to push against the flesh. The pressure forces blood out of the capillaries in that area, causing the flesh to present as much lighter in color. If the pressure does indeed cause a change in skin color, the flesh is blanchable. This tells the investigator the body is still within the lividity period, meaning the victim died sometime within the past 12 hours, or up to 36 hours in cool surroundings.

You can try this on your own skin. Use a finger to apply pressure to the back of your hand. Release the pressure after a second or two and you’ll see the change in skin color. Obviously you’ll use the finger of one hand to press against the skin on the back of your other hand. By the way, if you needed that instruction then the warning to remove Pop Tarts from their wrapper before heating are probably very important to you. And, if there was no change in your skin color, well, I hope your life insurance policy is up to date.

Tardieu spots are dark, circular areas—capillary ruptures.

2) Rigor

Muscles contain bundles of long, narrow cells. While we’re seated at our computers reading blogs and watching goofy videos, our muscles are, for the most part, at rest.

While resting, our muscles pump out calcium ions which build up electrical potential (energy). Then, when we’re ready to make that run to the mailbox to retrieve the latest royalty check, a nerve impulse causes those ions to hook up with actin and myosin filaments and the muscles contract (become tighter). They remain in that state until adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binds to the myosin, and before you know it the muscles once again relax.

Got it now? No, well, don’t worry. All we need to know is that ATP has an obsession with oxygen. It absolutely has to have it to survive (you know, like Justin Bieber needs bodyguards to protect his scrawny, arrogant self from being slapped into a different universe).

Actually, the body needs oxygen to produce ATP. Therefore, when a person stops breathing (no oxygen) the body ceases to make adenosine triphosphate. Without ATP our muscles can no longer relax. And when the muscles can’t relax, what happens? Yes, the body stiffens. And that, my writer friends, is called Rigor.

3) Degree of decomposition (putrefaction, adipocere, mummification, skeletonization, etc.). Everything affects decomposition, from air temperature to insects to shellfish and turtles (body in water). Even soil types and clothing can affect the rate of decomposition. Interestingly, newborns who have not yet been fed, decompose slowly since the body is basically sterile. However, an injury or being fed will cause a newborn’s body to decompose more rapidly.

a) Putrefaction – the final stage of decomposition. Presents as discoloration of tissue, disfiguration, liquefaction of tissue, bloating due to gases forming in the tissue and organs.

The general order of putrefactive changes are as follows:

First to go are the larynx and trachea, followed by …

– stomach, spleen, and intestines

– lungs and liver

–  brain

– heart

– bladder, uterus, kidneys

– skin, tendons, and muscle

– bone

*The prostate resists putrefaction for a long time.

b) Adipocere – a waxy, soap-like substance that’s sometimes formed during decomposition. Normally caused by moist or damp conditions surrounding the decomposing body.

D. Insect and animal activity. Obviously, insects and animals can and do consume body parts. Animals may also scatter human remains, sometimes making the murder scene a bit more difficult to understand at first look.

E. Scene temperature. Note the temperature at the location of the body, and the method used to obtain it.

F. Description of body temperature. Is it warm to the touch? Is the flesh cold, or frozen?

It is extremely important to preserve the security of the body. Remember, the body is most likely THE most important piece of evidence in a murder case. Investigators should oversee the labeling, packaging, and the removal of the remains by the M.E’s personnel, or EMS, etc. An identification tag should be attached to the body to prevent any mix ups later, at the morgue (yes, this has happened, and on more than one occasion).

Finally … No, detectives do NOT use thermometers of any type, including rectal thermometers, to check the temperature of a dead body. It is not in their job description to do so. Yes, I once read the rectal thermometer thing in a book. So, no, no, and NO!

By the way, the image to the left is of a grilled pork chop. Had your stomach turning for a moment, huh?

 

Happy New Year’s Eve!

Remember, Writers’ Police Academy Online has another exciting live and interactive seminar coming up on January  23rd. Details TBA in a couple of days!

 

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Effects of Hanging and Strangulation: Bill Bailey Ain’t Coming Home

Effects of hanging

“Won’t you come home, Bill Bailey, won’t you come on home

I’ve moaned that whole day long
I’ll do all the cookin’ honey, I’ll even pay the rent
I know, that I have done you, oh so, wrong

You remember that rainy evenin’
I throwed you out, with nothin but a fine tooth comb
I know I’m to blame, now … ain’t it a shame
So baby, won’t you please come

I said now, won’t you please come.

Bill Bailey, won’t you please …. come on home.”

~ Hughie Cannon (1902)

Bill Bailey, the last person executed by hanging in the United States

On a bitterly cold January night in 1996, around midnight, the toes of 49-year-old convicted murderer Billy Bailey dangled ten feet above soggy, wet soil. His new white tennis shoes a sharp contrast to the black nighttime sky.

Hanging from five feet of manila rope, Bailey’s body slowly spun counterclockwise six times, stopped, then began a final rotation in the opposite direction, coming to rest like a limp rag doll. One sleeve of Bailey’s denim prison jacket fluttered and flapped in the brisk winter wind.
Moments earlier, witnesses arrived at the Delaware Correctional Center compound to see Bill Bailey already standing on the 15-foot wooden gallows platform. He faced forward, toward the witnesses, showing no emotion. The trek to the top of the gallows was achieved by climbing a set of twenty-three plank steps.

The two guards who’d escorted Bailey to the platform, now stood one on Bailey’s left and the other to his right. Each wore black jumpsuits, and black hoods held in place by baseball caps.

The officer to Bailey’s right kept his back to witnesses and held the condemned prisoner’s shoulder. The other officer maintained a firm grasp on Bailey’s left arm.

Warden Robert Snyder stood farther to the right.

A noose hanging from the gallows pole gently swayed in the breeze.

No one knows what Bailey was thinking as he stood on the platform that night. Perhaps he’d been replaying “that night” in his mind. Maybe he thought of being the 19th of 23 children in an abusive and poverty stricken home. That when faced life in prison as a habitual offender in March of 1979, he’d decided to walk away from the work-release center to hold up a liquor store and then murder Gilbert Lambertson, 80, and his wife, Clara, 73, in their farmhouse. A property situated barely 10 miles from the very spot where the gallows stood.

It’s possible that Bailey remembered that he’d been crying when he committed the liquor store robbery.

It could be that he’d committed the murderers as a means to receive the death penalty. If so, he’d gotten his wish because he was convicted and sentenced to death for the shotgun murder of the innocent innocent and elderly farm couple.

Standing on the platform Bailey stood quite still, and when Warden Robert Snyder asked if he had any last words Bailey quietly replied, “No, sir.” But the warden couldn’t hear Bailey’s response to his question, so he asked again, “Do you have any last words?” Bailey again replied, “No, sir.”

The warden then motioned for the officers to lead Bailey onto the trapdoor where they placed a strap around his ankles and pulled a black hood over his head and chest. Then they placed the noose noose over the hood and securely tightened it beneath Bailey’s chin.

Warden Snyder checked and double-checked the hood to be certain that the hangman’s knot lay directly beneath Bailey’s left ear, an old Army regulation to assure the straightening rope would bring a quick death by severing the spinal cord.

When he was satisfied that everything was in order, the warden stepped back and used both hands to pull the gray wooden lever with both hands.

The murdered couple’s sons, Saxton and Delbert Lambertson, were among the witnesses to Bailey’s execution. They saw the trapdoor swung open in response to the pulling of the lever, and they heard dull thump of its mechanisms. They watched Bailey fall through the opening in the floor with five feet of manila rope rapidly snaking behind in his wake, snapping taut when it reached its end.

Eleven minutes of silence passed before Bailey was pronounced dead at 12:15 a.m.

There had been no complications.

Hangings

Hangings have been a staple in mysteries for as long as we can remember. The Wild West featured them at high noon. The government also used them as a means of execution, with the last being that of Mr. Bill Bailey, the fellow from the state of Delaware mentioned above.

Now, knowing that Bailey’s life ended at the end of a rope in Delaware, well, we finally have the answer to the never-ending question. No, he’s not coming home, so feel free to stop singing about him.

Most writers who’ve penned death by rope or other “twisted” cord have never seen a victim of strangulation, or hanging (sometimes they’re the same). And that, of course, makes the task a bit more difficult, having to rely on books, TV, film, and the word of experts. So before we look at an actual photo straight from the morgue (I snapped the image), let’s take a moment to discuss why and how something as small as a shoelace has the ability to end a human life.

The neck, although looking sturdy perched on a set of nicely toned shoulders (above left), is actually quite vulnerable to life-threatening injury.

After all, there’s a lot of important stuff packed into a fairly small space—spinal cord, airway, and major blood vessels—and there’s not a lot of protection surrounding those vital body parts. There’s no bony encasement, such as our ribs that protect internal organs (heart and lungs), that circle around the interior of the neck. Nope, it’s basically just muscle and skin that separate the spinal cord, airway, and major blood vessels from harm.

Did you know that hanging is actually a form of strangulation? Well, sometimes hangings may include some spinal cord or bone injury, but basically the death is by strangulation.

Hangings are either complete (the entire weight of the body is suspended by the neck), or incomplete, where a portion of the body is touching the ground/floor.

A judicial hanging (execution) is normally a death by internal decapitation, where the weight of the body combined with the fall causes the neck to break, disconnecting the head (internally) from the body.

A separation at C2 is the classic hangman fracture.

Rarely, as I’ve often read in novels, does a complete, external decapitation occur. However, it is possible to see an external decapitation (the head completely separates from the body—two individual pieces) in cases where the drop is much further than the length of the victim’s body. For example, the victim is 6-feet tall and is dropped from a height of 30 feet or more before the rope tightens.

The muscles of the neck, such as the sternocleidomastoid muscle, remain intact during an incomplete decapitation.

Strangulation by ligature, tool, or mechanism is a little different, however. Death is normally caused by obstruction of blood flow to the brain, which causes loss of consciousness followed by a loss of muscle tone and finally arterial and airway obstruction. Naturally, other things occur during the time of strangulation, but those listed are probably of the most concern for writers.

However, pressure applied to the neck for mere moments doesn’t always cause death. Martial arts strangle/choke holds often involve a compression of the major neck arteries, causing a temporary unconsciousness. The trachea (windpipe) is not compromised during the application of these techniques.

This post-autopsy photo (below right – note the stitching of the “Y” incision) shows a deep ligature mark on the neck (upper left of the image).

The murder weapon was an extension cord, the typical cord found in many homes.

Thanging autopsyo help orient – the head is to the left, just outside the upper edge of the photo. The Y-stitching begins at the bottom left  (upper right shoulder area) and continues to the mid chest area where it’s met by a like incision that began at the upper left shoulder area (upper area of the image) and continued to the chest center. The incision continued down to the area below the navel (bypassing the bellybutton).

By the way, the “Y” incision image is not of the mysterious Bill Bailey. And no, he’s definitely not coming home.

*This particular autopsy was conducted in the state of Ohio, where procedure may vary from the area where your story is set.

“Hangman, hangman, hold it a little while,
I think I see my friends coming, Riding many a mile.
Friends, did you get some silver?
Did you get a little gold?
What did you bring me, my dear friends, To keep me from the Gallows Pole?
What did you bring me to keep me from the Gallows Pole?”

“Gallows Pole
~ Led Zeppelin

Bill Bailey, a classic Dixieland song has been covered by artists such as Louis Armstrong, Patsy Cline, Bobby Darin, Aretha Franklin, Brenda Lee, Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Jimmy Durante, Harry Connick Jr., Michael Bublé, Sam Cooke, Al Hirt, and Bing Crosby.

By the way, I was once a member of a jazz band that used to perform the song from time to time. That was a long time ago, back in my trumpet-playing days.

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Take Two Bodies and Call Me in the Morning: No, Medical Examiners Don’t Always Show Up at Murder Scenes

Writers need to know that procedures vary across the country. California, for example, is practically a world of its own and definitely beats a different drum than the rest of the country. I know because we lived there for well over a decade. I’m also quite familiar with how things go in other parts of the country, such as Virginia and North Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, and more.

No two states are identical—laws, rules, and regulations vary from place to place. In fact, procedures, guidelines, governance, and even local ordinances differ. No two law enforcement agencies operate in precisely the same manner. Their differences may be slight, to great.

The takeaway is this—if your story is set in an actual town, city, or county, please research those specific areas, especially if your goal is realism.

No, Medical Examiners Don’t Always Show Up at Murder Scenes

In some locations, typically rural, medical examiners may not respond to homicide scenes, or suspected homicide scenes. Instead, as is the case of many areas within in the Commonwealth of Virginia, EMS or a funeral home is responsible for transporting the body to a local hospital where a doctor or local M.E. examines the victim. I’ve investigated numerous homicides where the medical examiner opted to not respond to the scene of the crime.

If a suspicious death occurs during the nighttime hours, the exam may not occur until the next day when the M.E. returns to work after a good night’s sleep. And, in those rural locations, if an autopsy is to be performed it is not the local medical examiner who’d conduct it. Instead, the body is transported to a state morgue which could be located hours away.

In Virginia, there are only four state morgue locations/district offices (Manassas, Norfolk, Richmond, and Roanoke) where autopsies are conducted. Each of the district offices is staffed by forensic pathologists, investigators, and various morgue personnel.

Breaking Bread with Kay Scarpetta

The Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) is located in Richmond (the office where Patricia Cornwell’s fictional M.E., Kay Scarpetta, worked). This is also the M.E.’s office responsible for conducting the autopsies on the homicide cases I investigated. The real-life Kay Scarpetta was our M.E., and she is brilliant.

She, in fact, and one of her assistants, joined Denene and me at dinner at the Commonwealth Club in Richmond the night Denene received her PhD in pathology from Virginia Commonwealth University. Ironically, it was this very assistant to the real-life Kay Scarpetta who months later performed the autopsy on a bank robber who engaged me in a shootout. And it was she who, in explicit detail, informed me that four of the five rounds I’d fired into the center of the robber’s chest were fatal rounds. The fifth, she told me, entered the skull at an angle that would not have resulted in death.

There are several local M.E.’s in Virginia (somewhere around 160, or so) but they do not conduct autopsies. Their job is to assist the state M.E. by conducting field investigations, if they see fit to do so, but many do not. Mostly, they have a look at the bodies brought to  hospitals by EMS, sign death certificates, and determine whether or not the case should be referred to the state M.E.’s office for autopsy. They definitely do not go to all death scenes. Again, some do, but not all.

An example (one of many) was a drug-related execution in a county near where I worked as a city police detective. The sheriff of the county contacted my chief and requested that I assist in the investigation. Following the evidence, I and the sheriff’s investigators located the killers and after interrogating one of the suspects, he led me to the crime scene where we found the deceased victim. The suspects shot and killed the victim and then carried and dragged the body several yards, deep into a wooded area.

The men, after tiring of dragging the dead weight, left the body between a few small trees, in a thicket of briars and poison oak. Insects—beetles, flies, etc.—had begun their feasts. Scores of ants marched in lines across the body and in and out of the mouth, nose, and ears. A wasp crawled from inside the mouth and stood at the tip of the man’s tongue while stretching its wings. Hundreds of mosquitos swarmed around us and punctured our exposed flesh at will. They were relentless, and each of us had to return to our various cars to retrieve whatever protective clothing we could find.

The local medical examiner was spared of the mosquito bites and poison oak allergies because he chose to not respond to the scene. Instead, he settled for our statements, photos, and my video recording. He requested that the body be delivered to a local hospital. EMS placed the remains into a body body bag, sealed it, and then headed off to the morgue with a deputy sheriff tagging along for the ride to ensure the chain of custody was not broken.

Me standing on the left at a murder scene where a drug dealer was executed by rival gang members who then hid the body in a wooded area. I was asked to assist a sheriff’s office with the investigation. The medical examiner was called but elected to not go to the scene. The body and sheet used by the suspects to drag the victim were placed into a body bag and then transported to the morgue via EMS ambulance.

Pursuant to § 32.1-283 of the Code of Virginia, all of the following deaths are investigated by the OCME:

  • any death from trauma, injury, violence, or poisoning attributable to accident, suicide or homicide;
  • sudden deaths to persons in apparent good health or deaths unattended by a physician;
  • deaths of persons in jail, prison, or another correctional institution, or in police custody (this includes deaths from legal intervention);
  • deaths of persons receiving services in a state hospital or training center operated by the Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services;
  • the sudden death of any infant; and
  • any other suspicious, unusual, or unnatural death.

* Remember, “investigated” does not mean they have to go to the actual crime scene.

Again, me on the left as a sheriff’s office crime scene investigator points out the location of spent bullet casings, drag marks, and a blood trail. Pictured in the center are a county sheriff and prosecutor. The M.E. elected to not travel to the scene. As good luck would have it, we had the killers in custody at the conclusion of a nonstop, no sleep, 36-hour investigation.

After a lengthy interrogation, two of the four confessed to the murder. Of course, they each pointed to someone else as the shooter, and he, the actual shooter, placed the blame on his partners. But all four admitted to being present when the murder occurred and all four served time for the killing.

In the areas far outside the immediate area of Virginia’s four district offices of the chief medical examiner, where officials rely on local, part-time medical examiners, it is typically police detectives/officers who determine when a body can be removed from the scene. EMS, after checking for signs of life, stand by until the police instruct them to transport the body.

If the local M.E. shows up, and they’re almost always called, he/she will have a say in when the body is to be removed, but it’s rare that they do anything other than gather information for their notes and discuss possibilities and evidence with the police investigators.

Take Two Bodies and Call Me in the Morning!

In many cases, the local M.E.’s will simply instruct the calling detective to have EMS transport the body to the hospital morgue where they’ll take a look when they have a chance. They’ll sometimes ask to speak to the EMS person in charge of their crew to verify that the victim is indeed, well, dead.

The pay for local M.E’s in Virginia is a “whopping” $150 per case. Local M.E.s receive an extra $50 if they actually go to a crime scene. Again, many do not. Interestingly, funeral homes pay the local medical examiner $50 for each cremation he or she certifies.

Local medical examiners in Virginia also provide cremation authorizations for funeral homes and crematories. Cremation authorizations are required for cremation of anyone who died in Virginia. Funeral homes performing cremations must pay the local medical examiner $50 for each authorization.

The requirements to become a local M.E. in Virginia are:

  • A valid Virginia license as a doctor of medicine or osteopathy, Nurse Practitioner, or Physician Assistant
  • An appointment by Virginia’s chief medical examiner
  • A valid United States driver’s license

Once someone is appointed as a local medical examiner their term is for three years, beginning on October 1 of the year of appointment.

The four district offices employ full-time forensic pathologists who conduct all autopsies. Obviously, a physician’s assistant is not qualified to conduct an autopsy, nor are they trained as police/homicide investigators.

Remember, things are never the same/uniform across the country. It’s always best, if you’re going for 100% realism, to check with someone in the area where your story is set. The rules and regulations on one side of the country may not be the same on the other. And the middle of the country may also be totally different from the other localities.

For example, in one Ohio county, a coroner there mandated that autopsies be performed for all deaths that occurred during vehicle crashes. This is not so in other areas of the country, or even in other locations in Ohio. By the way, at the time, the Ohio coroner’s office received $1,500 per autopsy performed, with $750 of the sum going to the pathologist performing the exam.

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